Been working on programmatically blending bitmaps. Below are the macros that I’ve come up, borrowing the some of the formulas from other websites (see sources at the bottom of this post).

Channel blending

#define ChannelBlend_Normal(B,L)     ((uint8)(B))
#define ChannelBlend_Lighten(B,L)    ((uint8)((L > B) ? L:B))
#define ChannelBlend_Darken(B,L)     ((uint8)((L > B) ? B:L))
#define ChannelBlend_Multiply(B,L)   ((uint8)((B * L) / 255))
#define ChannelBlend_Average(B,L)    ((uint8)((B + L) / 2))
#define ChannelBlend_Add(B,L)        ((uint8)(min(255, (B + L))))
#define ChannelBlend_Subtract(B,L)   ((uint8)((B + L < 255) ? 0:(B + L - 255)))
#define ChannelBlend_Difference(B,L) ((uint8)(abs(B - L)))
#define ChannelBlend_Negation(B,L)   ((uint8)(255 - abs(255 - B - L)))
#define ChannelBlend_Screen(B,L)     ((uint8)(255 - (((255 - B) * (255 - L)) >> 8)))
#define ChannelBlend_Exclusion(B,L)  ((uint8)(B + L - 2 * B * L / 255))
#define ChannelBlend_Overlay(B,L)    ((uint8)((L < 128) ? (2 * B * L / 255):(255 - 2 * (255 - B) * (255 - L) / 255)))
#define ChannelBlend_SoftLight(B,L)  ((uint8)((L < 128)?(2*((B>>1)+64))*((float)L/255):(255-(2*(255-((B>>1)+64))*(float)(255-L)/255))))
#define ChannelBlend_HardLight(B,L)  (ChannelBlend_Overlay(L,B))
#define ChannelBlend_ColorDodge(B,L) ((uint8)((L == 255) ? L:min(255, ((B << 8 ) / (255 - L)))))
#define ChannelBlend_ColorBurn(B,L)  ((uint8)((L == 0) ? L:max(0, (255 - ((255 - B) << 8 ) / L))))
#define ChannelBlend_LinearDodge(B,L)(ChannelBlend_Add(B,L))
#define ChannelBlend_LinearBurn(B,L) (ChannelBlend_Subtract(B,L))
#define ChannelBlend_LinearLight(B,L)((uint8)(L < 128)?ChannelBlend_LinearBurn(B,(2 * L)):ChannelBlend_LinearDodge(B,(2 * (L - 128))))
#define ChannelBlend_VividLight(B,L) ((uint8)(L < 128)?ChannelBlend_ColorBurn(B,(2 * L)):ChannelBlend_ColorDodge(B,(2 * (L - 128))))
#define ChannelBlend_PinLight(B,L)   ((uint8)(L < 128)?ChannelBlend_Darken(B,(2 * L)):ChannelBlend_Lighten(B,(2 * (L - 128))))
#define ChannelBlend_HardMix(B,L)    ((uint8)((ChannelBlend_VividLight(B,L) < 128) ? 0:255))
#define ChannelBlend_Reflect(B,L)    ((uint8)((L == 255) ? L:min(255, (B * B / (255 - L)))))
#define ChannelBlend_Glow(B,L)       (ChannelBlend_Reflect(L,B))
#define ChannelBlend_Phoenix(B,L)    ((uint8)(min(B,L) - max(B,L) + 255))
#define ChannelBlend_Alpha(B,L,O)    ((uint8)(O * B + (1 - O) * L))
#define ChannelBlend_AlphaF(B,L,F,O) (ChannelBlend_Alpha(F(B,L),B,O))

B is the base channel and L is the blend channel. For example you to blend using Glow you simply call:

Target[i] = ChannelBlend_Glow(Base[i], Blend[i]);

The great thing about these macros is that you can apply the blending effect simply by passing in the channel value, without regard to which channel is red, green, or blue.

To use the blending along with opacity you can use the following.

Target[i] = ChannelBlend_AlphaF(Base[i], Blend[i], Blend_Subtract, 0.5F)

Color blending

To add certain blend modes that utilize hue, luminosity, and saturation we have to construct a per-color interface instead of per-channel interface. For these macros we assume that A and B are buffer pointers and they point to bytes with channels red, green, and blue in that order.

#define ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,M)      (T)[0] = ChannelBlend_##M((B)[0], (L)[0]), \
                                        (T)[1] = ChannelBlend_##M((B)[1], (L)[1]), \
                                        (T)[2] = ChannelBlend_##M((B)[2], (L)[2])
#define ColorBlend_Normal(T,B,L)        (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Normal))
#define ColorBlend_Lighten(T,B,L)       (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Lighten))
#define ColorBlend_Darken(T,B,L)        (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Darken))
#define ColorBlend_Multiply(T,B,L)      (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Multiply))
#define ColorBlend_Average(T,B,L)       (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Average))
#define ColorBlend_Add(T,B,L)           (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Add))
#define ColorBlend_Subtract(T,B,L)      (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Subtract))
#define ColorBlend_Difference(T,B,L)    (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Difference))
#define ColorBlend_Negation(T,B,L)      (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Negation))
#define ColorBlend_Screen(T,B,L)        (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Screen))
#define ColorBlend_Exclusion(T,B,L)     (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Exclusion))
#define ColorBlend_Overlay(T,B,L)       (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Overlay))
#define ColorBlend_SoftLight(T,B,L)     (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,SoftLight))
#define ColorBlend_HardLight(T,B,L)     (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,HardLight))
#define ColorBlend_ColorDodge(T,B,L)    (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,ColorDodge))
#define ColorBlend_ColorBurn(T,B,L)     (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,ColorBurn))
#define ColorBlend_LinearDodge(T,B,L)   (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,LinearDodge))
#define ColorBlend_LinearBurn(T,B,L)    (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,LinearBurn))
#define ColorBlend_LinearLight(T,B,L)   (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,LinearLight))
#define ColorBlend_VividLight(T,B,L)    (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,VividLight))
#define ColorBlend_PinLight(T,B,L)      (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,PinLight))
#define ColorBlend_HardMix(T,B,L)       (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,HardMix))
#define ColorBlend_Reflect(T,B,L)       (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Reflect))
#define ColorBlend_Glow(T,B,L)          (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Glow))
#define ColorBlend_Phoenix(T,B,L)       (ColorBlend_Buffer(T,B,L,Phoenix))
#define ColorBlend_Hue(T,B,L)            ColorBlend_Hls(T,B,L,HueL,LuminationB,SaturationB)
#define ColorBlend_Saturation(T,B,L)     ColorBlend_Hls(T,B,L,HueB,LuminationB,SaturationL)
#define ColorBlend_Color(T,B,L)          ColorBlend_Hls(T,B,L,HueL,LuminationB,SaturationL)
#define ColorBlend_Luminosity(T,B,L)     ColorBlend_Hls(T,B,L,HueB,LuminationL,SaturationB)

#define ColorBlend_Hls(T,B,L,O1,O2,O3) {                                        \
    float64 HueB, LuminationB, SaturationB;                                     \
    float64 HueL, LuminationL, SaturationL;                                     \
    Color_RgbToHls((B)[2],(B)[1],(B)[0], &HueB, &LuminationB, &SaturationB);    \
    Color_RgbToHls((L)[2],(L)[1],(L)[0], &HueL, &LuminationL, &SaturationL);    \
    Color_HlsToRgb(O1,O2,O3,&(T)[2],&(T)[1],&(T)[0]);                           \
    }

int32 Color_HueToRgb(float64 M1, float64 M2, float64 Hue, float64 *Channel)
{
    if (Hue < 0.0)
        Hue += 1.0;
    else if (Hue > 1.0)
        Hue -= 1.0;

    if ((6.0 * Hue) < 1.0)
        *Channel = (M1 + (M2 - M1) * Hue * 6.0);
    else if ((2.0 * Hue) < 1.0)
        *Channel = (M2);
    else if ((3.0 * Hue) < 2.0)
        *Channel = (M1 + (M2 - M1) * ((2.0F / 3.0F) - Hue) * 6.0);
    else
        *Channel = (M1);

    return TRUE;
}

int32 Color_RgbToHls(uint8 Red, uint8 Green, uint8 Blue, float64 *Hue, float64 *Lumination, float64 *Saturation)
{
    float64 Delta;
    float64 Max, Min;
    float64 Redf, Greenf, Bluef;

    Redf    = ((float64)Red   / 255.0F);
    Greenf  = ((float64)Green / 255.0F);
    Bluef   = ((float64)Blue  / 255.0F); 

    Max     = max(max(Redf, Greenf), Bluef);
    Min     = min(min(Redf, Greenf), Bluef);

    *Hue        = 0;
    *Lumination = (Max + Min) / 2.0F;
    *Saturation = 0;

    if (Max == Min)
        return TRUE;

    Delta = (Max - Min);

    if (*Lumination < 0.5)
        *Saturation = Delta / (Max + Min);
    else
        *Saturation = Delta / (2.0 - Max - Min);

    if (Redf == Max)
        *Hue = (Greenf - Bluef) / Delta;
    else if (Greenf == Max)
        *Hue = 2.0 + (Bluef - Redf) / Delta;
    else
        *Hue = 4.0 + (Redf - Greenf) / Delta;

    *Hue /= 6.0; 

    if (*Hue < 0.0)
        *Hue += 1.0;       

    return TRUE;
}

int32 Color_HlsToRgb(float64 Hue, float64 Lumination, float64 Saturation, uint8 *Red, uint8 *Green, uint8 *Blue)
{
    float64 M1, M2;
    float64 Redf, Greenf, Bluef;

    if (Saturation == 0)
        {
        Redf    = Lumination;
        Greenf  = Lumination;
        Bluef   = Lumination;
        }
    else
        {
        if (Lumination <= 0.5)
            M2 = Lumination * (1.0 + Saturation);
        else
            M2 = Lumination + Saturation - Lumination * Saturation;

        M1 = (2.0 * Lumination - M2);

        Color_HueToRgb(M1, M2, Hue + (1.0F / 3.0F), &Redf);
        Color_HueToRgb(M1, M2, Hue, &Greenf);
        Color_HueToRgb(M1, M2, Hue - (1.0F / 3.0F), &Bluef);
        }

    *Red    = (uint8)(Redf * 255);
    *Blue   = (uint8)(Bluef * 255);
    *Green  = (uint8)(Greenf * 255);

    return TRUE;
}

So now we can use the hue, saturation, color, and luminosity blend modes along with the rest of the blend modes. To use the ColorBlend macros we just position our bitmap’s pointers to the next RGB iteration and call,

ColorBlend_Glow(Target + iTarget, Base + iBase, Blend + iBlend);

Color macros

Here are some color macros for combining and extracting channels colors out of an integer. One macro that I find a lot of use for is HexToRgb. With it I can copy and paste a hex color value out of the Photoshop color dialog and use the macro to do all the conversion for me to an rgb value.

#define COLOR_OPAQUE                (0)
#define COLOR_TRANSPARENT           (127)

#define RGB_SIZE                    (3)
#define RGB_BPP                     (24)
#define RGB_MAXRED                  (255)
#define RGB_MAXGREEN                (255)
#define RGB_MAXBLUE                 (255)

#define ARGB_SIZE                   (4)
#define ARGB_BPP                    (32)
#define ARGB_MAXALPHA               (127)
#define ARGB_MAXRED                 (RGB_MAXRED)
#define ARGB_MAXGREEN               (RGB_MAXGREEN)
#define ARGB_MAXBLUE                (RGB_MAXBLUE)

/*********************************************************************/

#define Color_GetChannel(c,shift)   ((uint8)((c) >> (shift)))
#define Color_Reverse(c,bpp)        ((((uint8)(c) << 24) | ((uint8)((c) >> 8 ) << 16) | ((uint8)((c) >> 16) << 8 ) | \
                                    ((uint8)((c) >> 24))) >> (32 - (bpp)))

#define Rgb_ByteWidth(width)        ((width) * RGB_SIZE)
#define Rgb_PixelWidth(width)       ((width) / RGB_SIZE)

#define Rgb_GetRed(rgb)             (Color_GetChannel(rgb, 0))
#define Rgb_GetGreen(rgb)           (Color_GetChannel(rgb, 8))
#define Rgb_GetBlue(rgb)            (Color_GetChannel(rgb, 16))

#define Rgba_GetRed(rgba)           (Color_GetChannel(rgba, 24))
#define Rgba_GetGreen(rgba)         (Color_GetChannel(rgba, 16))
#define Rgba_GetBlue(rgba)          (Color_GetChannel(rgba, 8))
#define Rgba_GetAlpha(rgba)         (Color_GetChannel(rgba, 0))

#define Argb_GetAlpha(argb)         (Color_GetChannel(argb, 24))
#define Argb_GetRed(argb)           (Color_GetChannel(argb, 16))
#define Argb_GetGreen(argb)         (Color_GetChannel(argb, 8))
#define Argb_GetBlue(argb)          (Color_GetChannel(argb, 0))

#define MakeRgb(r,g,b)              (((uint32)(uint8)(b) << 16) | ((uint16)(uint8)(g) << 8 ) | (uint8)(r))
#define MakeRgba(r,g,b,a)           (((uint32)(uint8)(r) << 24) | ((uint16)(uint8)(g) << 16) | ((uint16)(uint8)(b) << 8 ) | (uint8)(a))
#define MakeArgb(a,r,g,b)           (((uint32)(uint8)(a) << 24) | ((uint32)(uint8)(r) << 16) | ((uint16)(uint8)(g) << 8 ) | (uint8)(b))

#define HexToRgb(hex)               (MakeRgb(((hex & 0xFF0000) >> 16), ((hex & 0x00FF00) >> 8 ), (hex & 0xFF)))

Image blending

To show you what each effect does I’ve blended the following two photos.

Base Layer Source

Blend Layer Source

And the results..

Blend_Lighten	Blend_Darken	Blend_Multiply
Blend_Average	Blend_Add	Blend_Subtract
Blend_Difference	Blend_Negation	Blend_Screen
Blend_Exclusion	Blend_Overlay	Blend_SoftLight
Blend_HardLight	Blend_ColorDodge	Blend_ColorBurn
Blend_LinearDodge	Blend_LinearBurn	Blend_LinearLight
Blend_VividLight	Blend_PinLight	Blend_HardMix
Blend_Reflect	Blend_Glow	Blend_Phoenix
Blend_Hue	Blend_Saturation	Blend_Color
Blend_Luminosity

And the gradients..

Base Layer

Blend Layer

And the results..

Blend_Lighten	Blend_Darken	Blend_Multiply
Blend_Average	Blend_Add	Blend_Subtract
Blend_Difference	Blend_Negation	Blend_Screen
Blend_Exclusion	Blend_Overlay	Blend_SoftLight
Blend_HardLight	Blend_ColorDodge	Blend_ColorBurn
Blend_LinearDodge	Blend_LinearBurn	Blend_LinearLight
Blend_VividLight	Blend_PinLight	Blend_HardMix
Blend_Reflect	Blend_Glow	Blend_Phoenix
Blend_Hue	Blend_Saturation	Blend_Color
Blend_Luminosity

More blending resources

PegTop blend modes
Forensic Photoshop
Insight into Photoshop 7.0 Blending Modes
SF – Basics – Blending Modes
finish the blend() modes
Romz blog
ReactOS RGB/HLS conversion fucntions

Nathan Moinvaziri Mary Pat Branch Melanie Dugan Salvador Ortega

This paper was a group project. Each person gather information for their section and write a little about it. I was responsible for putting it all together in one document and rewording everything and making it sound good so that it looked like it flowed.

Chapter Eighteen Materials: Cloth, Wood, and Paper

Fibers

Fibers are important to the cloth industry because most cloth is made using various types of fiber. Those fibers that are derived from plants are used to make not only cloth, but also many of the products we use daily.

There are different types of fibers and most fibers can be classified by their use or if they are plant fibers they are classified by where they come from on the plant. For example, textile fibers are instrumental to the cloth industry because they are used to weave cloth and rope. Surface fibers on the other hand, come from seeds, leaves, and fruit. Some common surface fibers include cotton and coconut coir. Another type of fiber is the soft or bast fiber, and is from the pholem of plants while hard fibers come from the vascular bundles in leaves. With such a variety of kinds of fibers to choose from the uses for those fibers become almost limitless.

Each fiber is composed of millions of fiber cells. The function of these fiber cells is to serve as support to the stems and roots of plants. These fiber cells are long and thin, with tapering ends, and are dead when they reach maturity. A single fiber cell has a thick cell wall which is mainly made of cellulose and lignin. The lignin binds itself to the cellulose to help strengthen the cell wall and in turn strength the whole structure of the fiber cell altogether.

The process of extracting fibers from plants can be a difficult one especially if done without all the modern tools used today. Three common ways to extract fiber include retting, ginning, and decortications. Retting is the process used to extract soft fibers. Basically, what happens during retting is the stems of plants are soaked and allowed to rot in order to remove any non-fiberous parts of the stem and vascular bundles. The fibers are then able to be separated by pulling them across a comb. For surface fibers, ginning is the technique that is used to remove the fiber from seeds and today is all done by machine. The extraction process involved in decorticating involves crushing and scraping the leaves of plants to remove fiber. The type of extraction that is used for a particular fiber depends mainly how what type of fiber is being extracted. However, once the fibers are extracted they are ready to be used in the manufacturing of cloth and other materials.

Cotton

In the cloth industry there are many fibers used but the one that is probably used the most is cotton and its fibers. Cotton is truly the “Fabric of Our Lives”. It is the most popular fabric in the world, accounting for half of the world’s textiles. In the United States, cotton was a major cash crop of the southern states before the civil war and was also one of the major forces behind the institution of slavery than. Because cotton was so profitable and in such high demand it created an even greater demand for slaves which only help further set the stage for the civil war. For example: In 1790, there were 697,124 slaves producing 1.5 million pounds of cotton. By 1860 there were 3,953,760 slaves producing 2,275 million pounds of cotton, which was quite a leap in production over the course of 70 years. At that time, picking cotton was as labor intensive as was ginning the cotton. Most of the cotton that was grown was of the long-staple cotton varieties which could be most easily ginned by hand. With the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney’s in 1793, a machine that removes surface fibers mechanically, it became possible to gin 50 pounds of cotton per day as opposed to 1 pound a day when ginned by hand. Hence the cotton gin had made it economically feasible to grow the short staple varieties away from the costal regions up and inland to the Southern interior and expanding the cotton belt of the South. Not only that but it also reduced the amount of slaves needed to harvest the same amount of cotton. Cotton is an important economic staple and “with the mechanization of cotton ginning came the industrial revolution.”

Cotton belongs to Gossypium, a genus named by Linnaeus in the middle of the 18th century. The genus has been classified in both the Malvaceae or mallow family. Today, only those species of Gossypium producing seed hairs can accurately be called cotton Gossypium hirsutum L. is recognized as the predominant type of cotton grown in the world today. It’s also known as Upland Cotton. It was first grown in Central America and Mexico, and then spread to South America. Gossypium barbadense L. is believed to have originated in the Andean region, of South America. It is the species which includes the cultivars known as Sea Island, and Egyptian cotton. It use dates back to as early as 10,000 years ago. Today Cotton a monocot is one of the most economically important nonfood plants in the world.

Cotton is an annual, biennial or perennial sub-tropical plant, but in cultivation it is generally treated as an annual; herbaceous to short shrub or small tree two to six feet tall. It consists of a primary axis, erect and branched with a vegetative lower zone having monopodial branches and a fruiting upper zone with sympodial branches. The leaves of the cotton plant alternate with varying size, texture, shape and hairiness. The large, showy, cream yellow, red or purple flowers are extra axillary, terminal, solitary, and borne on sympodial branches. The calyx or collectively the sepals consists of a very short cup-shaped structure at the base of the corolla. The five petals of the corolla are either free or slightly united at the base of the convoluted bud. The seed hairs are unicellular outgrowths of the epidermis of the seed, or seed coat, and consist of a thin primary wall and a secondary cellulose wall, which develops after primary growth of the plant has ceased. In commercial cotton, the hairs are of two types, lint and fuzz. Lint hairs are distinguishable by being convoluted or twisted. The deposit of cellulose in the cuticle is much less in lint hairs. When the capsule opens and the lint hairs dry, they collapse around their central hollow axis. The cellulose thickening is deposited in spirally arranged fibrillai. The spirals reverse directions at intervals so that they are present in the same hair in both clockwise and counter-clockwise directions. This causes the ribbon to twist, and these irregularly twisted ribbons cling together when spun into thread. This cling allows a strong thread to be produced from cotton, although the individual fibers are much shorter than those of wool or flax. The fuzz hairs or linters are generally shorter, have a larger diameter, a smaller lumen and a much thicker cellulose deposit in the secondary wall which prevent the formation of twists when the cell dries out at maturity. This makes the fuzz unspinnable, but it is marketable for items such as upholstery stuffing and for the production of cellulose. There are many aspects to cotton and because of its valuable place in our society and economy it is essential to know all we can about this plant.

Cotton is a very unique plant that is not only economically important but it is also the very fabric and fiber that we wear on our backs.

Wood and wood products

Wood is used for many different things by society. Mankind has depended on wood for centuries; wood has provided shelter, material for weapons and other instruments, and fuel for the fire that men use to cook their meals. Wood provides shelter through its use in construction, furniture, musical instruments, paper fuel, charcoal and synthetic materials such as rayon cellulose acetates, and cellophane. Many early siege weapons and hand guns were developed using wood and wood is therefore the cause of most of mankind’s early wars. Wood has always been and even is today a material with great demand due to its strength, insulating properties, and natural beauty.

Hardwoods and softwoods

There are many different types of wood that exist in the world today. All wood is divided into two main categories, hardwoods and softwoods. Hardwoods are angiosperm trees and often found to be hard and dense. There are some hardwoods that exist that are so hard and dense that it is difficult if not impossible to drive a nail through. One aspect of hardwood is that they are resistant to wear which make them great to use for flooring and in other such instances. Hardwoods tend to have a more variable width than do softwoods which makes them easier to spot. The inner workings of hardwoods consist of a complex bimolecular structure of tracheids and vessels, which are small pores in the wood. Softwoods on the other hand are referred to as gymnosperm trees.

Softwood trees (conifers) are almost completely on the other spectrum as hardwoods in that they are light and not very dense. Softwoods are better for construction than hardwoods because of their light, yet strong characteristics. The inner structure of the softwoods are different than hardwoods cause there are tracheids and only a few parenchyma cells present which is why softwoods are referred to as nonporous because of the fact that they do not have vessels or small pores in the wood. Of all the world’s forest area, 35% of it is covered by softwoods which makes softwoods an important natural resource. Whether the trees are hardwood or softwood, there is a tree out there that is just right for you.

Lumber, Veneer, and Plywood

Wood that has been cut for use in building materials is known as lumber. Most of the world’s lumber comes from the United States and Canada where at least 50% of the trees that are harvested are used in the production of lumber. The types and sizes of trees that are used for lumber vary. In North America alone, there are 95 different species of trees that are cut down to make lumber with 35 of those species being native to the region. The best lumber producing tree is softwood found in North America, called the Pinus Strobus which is desired because of the quality and durability of its wood. Besides pines, another tree important to the production of lumber is the hardwood oak tree. Most lumber made of oak is highly prized and sought after because of its use in making fine and durable furniture although it can be fairly expensive.

Because producing lumber especially that of rare origin is rather expensive, alternative ways of producing lumber and alternative sources of lumber have been exploited. One of those alternatives is called veneer and is a very thin sheet of a desired wood that is glued to a base of less expensive lumber. Not only is veneer cheaper than the lumber it tries to mimic but it but it also provides the look of fine wood to those that cannot afford it. Some of the most popular woods that are used for veneer are black cherry and walnut, bird’s eye maple, and mahogany. Veneers are an exceptional alternative to using expensive woods to produce fine furniture.

Another alternative to lumber which is mainly used in construction is called plywood. Plywood is mainly used on roof and wall sheeting, sub flooring, shelves, cabinets, boxes, and signs. Most plywood comes from Douglas-fir trees and other various species of pine trees. Because of the cheap cost of plywood and its excellent source of building material, it is no wonder that 20% of harvested lumber is used in the production of plywood.

Forest Conservation and Concerns

Today, the source of much of our wood and wood-based products comes from nearly one-third of the Earth’s land surface which is consumed in forests. Unfortunately these forests are being harvested and cut down at an astonishing rate. Such deforestation threatens not only the future availability of wood but it also threatens all life on Earth. Furthermore, the destruction of the world’s forests also destroys the benefits provided by those forests. It has been estimated that approximately 30% to 50% of the world’s forests have been destroyed by human beings ever since the beginning of time. Such massive deforestation has encroached upon all plant and animal life living in the forest habitats of the wild.

Deforestation is the result of thousands of years of human wear and tear on the forests of the Earth which began with the harnessing of fire. There are several methods of deforestation, the oldest being slash and burn agriculture. In this method vegetation is cut and later burned to release minerals. This allows for a sort period of soil enrichment but after several slash and burns the soil becomes no longer able to support crops. Another even as destructive form of deforestation occurs during selective logging in which only particular trees are chosen for logging and the ones around them are left alive. Because of the lack of sunlight to newly forming trees, it takes at least 50 years for the trees that have been cut down to grow back to their former glory. Of course, the most destructive form of deforestation occurs due to lack of land for cattle grazing in some regions of the world. Trees are chopped down to provide for a new grazing area for cattle resulting in 72% of global deforestation. In these last days, many farmers and cattle grazers have turned to other measures to protect their livelihood while preventing deforestation.

While deforestation continues, there have been some reforestation programs that have helped to curve the problem. Whenever a tree is cut down for commercial use a new tree is planted to secure a never ending supply of forest trees. Of the world’s forests only about 3% are being managed and kept up with reforestation programs. Another 2% of the world’s forests are protected reserves where the cutting down of any tree is not permitted. In regions where there is no reforestation or preservation program in place wood is being harvested and used at a faster rate than forests can regenerate it. For example, in Latin America for every 10 trees that are cut down only one tree is planted, leaving 9 other trees sometimes at least 15 years or more to grow back. In other areas where they don’t have the finances to support a reforestation program the ratio of trees cut down to trees planted is even worst. Although there are reforestation programs in place, they cover a small percent of our world’s forests.

A major concern is also for the topical rainforests of Earth that are rich in both plant and animal life. In fact, one-third of the world’s birds, amphibians, and mammals reside in tropical rainforests. They also house some of the most exotic and rare trees that exist on the face of the planet and are also among the most desired. The majority of the trees that are cut down in the tropical rainforests are used locally with about one-third of them being used in international trade. And of the trees that are cut down for local use most of it is used as wood for fuel with less than 15% used for lumber. As populations increase around tropical rainforests, the damage to those topical rainforests will also increase. In the rainforest just replanting a tree that has been cut down is difficult because the new tree often does not get enough sunlight to sustain much growth if any at all. The situation of the Earth’s tropical rainforests is getting grimmer with most rainforests under little or no protection and no part of any reforestation effort.

Renewable Resource

Fortunately enough, trees are a renewable resource and will grow back within a period of a couple of years. Although sometimes it can take decades before is tree is fully mature again the prospect of having an almost never-ending supply of trees is quite valuable. Of course there are problems with having any renewable resource and those problems mainly stem from abuse. But apart from the abuses that take place in the production of wood-based products, wood is an excellent resource due to its ability to grow back when cut down.

Wood is a resource that can be used multiple times over being recycled to help reduce the further destruction of the world’s forests and tropical rainforests. The recycling effort has been toward the production of paper and paperboard product. Such recycled paper can come from almost any previously used wood-based product making the production of paper that is recycled more desirable. In fact, when making recycled paper it is actually cheaper to produce that it would be to make paper anew. Approximately 45% of all paper and paperboard was recycled in 1996 in the United States. And in 1992, of the 12.8 million tons of newspaper used in the United States, about 1.4 million tons went back into the manufacture of new newspaper. In the future, the United States plans to recycle even more of the wood waste that they produce, with many recycling programs already in place in some cities. Wood and other waste products can be reused and renewed allowing for a cleaner and healthier environment.

Even though wood can be recycled and renewed it does not come without abuse. Many people believe that we can cut down all the trees that we want cause they will ‘just grow back’. The rate at which trees grow back can take a half a lifetime or more. It almost seems that we cannot live with trees and we cannot live without them. Trees produce oxygen and other resources such as rubber that we cannot do without. Yet due to the massive deforestation that is occurring in all of the world’s forests it appears we cannot live together with the forests without consuming them. Others believe that simply planting a tree after cutting one down is the answer in all cases. But this is not true, and in some cases the new trees fail to grow or even to mature up to their former height. Many modern countries have already successfully implemented reforestation and recycling measures that curve forest deforestation although in some poor countries the concern for their slowly renewing and possibly limited supply of wood is not that great of a concern. Until the concern for the destruction of our forests becomes greater every little thing we can do to help our forest friends helps us.

Paper

The development of spoken and written languages during the growth of early era is fundamental to the introduction of paper and paper products. The first written language was created by the Samarians around 5,000 years ago. They drew pictures and symbols on clay tablets and baked the clay making it permanent. As written language advanced so did written materials. About 500 years after the Samarians started using clay tablets, the Egyptians began writing on a material called papyrus which grows naturally along the Nile River. The use of papyrus flourished due to the strong influence of the Egyptians in the world at the time. Papyrus was not replaced until the time of the Greeks and Romans who used parchment instead of the Egyptian papyrus. A common type of parchment that was used for formal documents was called vellum that was made, like most parchment, from the skins of lambs and goats. The use of parchment was continued until the 8th or 9th century.

Modern paper as we know it was developed by the Chinese in the second century. It was basically made using pulp from Mulberry trees and sifting it on a flat frame to form a sheet. This sheet was then sun dried to form a strong, sturdy paper. Originally only pulp was used to make paper but as time progressed, other materials such as hemp, linens, and rags were used. Eventually, these valid source materials for paper became inadequate to support the demand of paper so an alternative source was sought out. That alternative source, and the source used in almost all paper produced today is wood. Since wood is easily renewable as a resource, readily availability, and more inexpensive than other materials it an excellent choice for the source material for the production of paper over previous materials.

Today, paper is used for a number of things from writing documents and packaging products to medical bandages and car filters. Depending on its intended use, paper can be processed so that is colored, glazed, and even water-proofed. Ninety different countries worldwide produce paper. Much of the paper produced is imported or exported in world trade. Also, developing countries are now using an increasing amount of paper that is being used to try to promote literacy. More now than ever paper has become an import part of our economy and production demands on it will continue to grow as time goes on.

Although it remains to be seen how long we will be able to keep up with the demand of paper. Of the 20,000 different species of wood trees only forty of them are used for paper production making. One machine that helped increase the production of paper was invented in 1803 which ended the slow, hand-made process of making paper that had been used for thousands of years prior. With such inventions and the recent growth in the demand for paper it is no wonder that scientists are developing trees for use in the production of paper that are disease resistant and fast growing.

Bibliography

Book References

R.J. Kohel, Lewis C.J. Cotton
Panshin, “A.J. Textbook of Wood Technology”. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.
Wingate,B Isabel. “Textile Fabrics and their Selection”

Internet Resources

Mayes, Fred. “Wood/Wood Waste.” Aug. 2005
URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/wood/wood.html

Thomas Recycling. “Recycling Facts and Info for Kids.” Aug. 2003
URL: http://www.thomasrecycling.com/kids.html

Supima – World’s Finest Cottons. “History of Pima and ELS Cotton”.
URL: http://www.supimacotton.org/About/content.cfm?ItemNumber=593& snItemNumber=538

Nathan Moinvaziri HUM214 SPENCE December 13, 2005

Throughout history the views of society toward black women and the black person in general have improved slowly but surely. These changes are probably best seen in the film industry where the life in film is a great depiction of the social, economic, and religious views of an entire era. In the film industry, the black women were considered the bottom of the ladder. But as time shows, the more black man became socially acceptable in the eyes of society and in the eyes of film audiences, so did too the black women.

The role of the black women in the film industry during the early era of film was often as a slave or a servant in the home of well-to-do white families. Although this is not unexpected, as the role of many black women in society was the same. Time progressed, eventually the roles given to black women became of more importance, first in black only films and then in white and mixed films. During the later half of the 20th century black women actually began directing films, an occupation 50 years ago black women would have never considered. Even though today women and black women are able to direct films, “Hollywood is more inclined to fund projects spearheaded by men.” (Thompson) Actually, women have it the hardest in the film industry and black women have it even harder. The fact really has almost always been that “the [film] industry’s obsession with youth and beauty, make it even harder for women to sustain marquee status for any length of time.” (Waxman) Nevertheless, there has been much social change toward black women in the 20th century and that change can be seen in the films of the movie-making industry.

The film Claudine (1974) starring Diahann Carroll as Claudine shows best the role of black women in society as well as in film. The movie is about single black woman of six children who goes through some rough times in her life trying to make ends meet. Since she has so many children she has to go on welfare and does not tell welfare about the job she has or the man she is dating cause of the possibility of them taking her support away from her. The welfare worker that came to visit Claudine represents ‘the man’ that is trying to keep blacks back from the spotlight that they deserve in the industry. And as the garbage collector Rubert, who is dating Claudine, finds out, “You can’t win with these people.” Claudine is an all black film and not only shows the social struggles that blacks had to overcome in society is an exact representation of the treatment and roles of black men and women in the film industry.

Introducing Dorothy Dandridge (1999) starring Halle Berry as Dorothy is a great film that shows the role and struggle of black women actresses during the 1940’s and 1950’s. Most of the black women actresses, as the movie shows started from the stage life and club scene and eventually progressed into full-featured films. Dorothy had many obstacles to overcome as she was one of the first nationally accepted and Academy Award nominated black actresses of the time. She was not accepted by everyone and many especially in the south still judged her by the color of her skin. One thing that Dorothy had going for her was her beauty and the beauty of women is something that always trandescends the color of their skin. (As seen in the statements of women’s beauty in film by Waxman) Introducing Dorothy Dandridge shows more than anything how difficult it was for a black woman to get a role in a black film produced by a big-name movie studio. Hollywood studios were not producing very many all black films and therefore when the film Carmen Jones was announce many of the black actors and actresses of the time clamored to get a role in the film. Dorothy Dandrige’s role as Carmen Jones opened society up to black entertainers especially black women and Introducing Dorothy Dandridge depicts that story.

The Ghosts of Mississippi (1996) is another film that deals with the history of the black people and the injustice incurred upon them by the white man. Although this film has a mixed cast of both blacks and whites it is a tribute to the social winds of change that have prevailed even until today. The film stars Whoopi Goldberg who plays Medgar Ever’s wife who was shot to death by white supremacist Byron De La Beckwith because of his role in the civil rights movements of the 1960’s. The movie follows the most recent trial of Byron De La Beckwith 30 years after he was first tried of murdering Medgar Evers. In relation to black women, Mrs. Ever’s character changes over time and is shown in the 1960’s as a stay at home mother who took care of the house and who did not speak unless spoken to. Then the movie picks up in almost present day where Mrs. Ever’s is seen in a totally different light and as more outspoken in her conversations and relationship with the lawyer prosecuting the case, Bobby DeLaughter. The Ghosts of Mississippi not only shows the change of the black women over time but it also shows the acceptance of the black women as leading roles in stories where they play blacks that have suffered injustice against whites.

The changes have taken place over the past 100 years have been dramatic especially in respect to the treatment of black women by society which directly corresponds to their treatment and position in Hollywood at the time. The fact is that black women have progressed over time and have become more than servants in the household of rich white families. This progress is mirrored in film, as black women toward the 1950’s and onward began playing more significant roles in film. As the black woman ascended on the movie scene so too did the views of society ascend on the fact that ‘Black is beautiful’.

References

Thompson, Carla. Black Women providing Hollywood with Fresh Ideas
URL: http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/1873/context/archive

Waxman, Sharon. Fade to Black: Women’s Roles in Movies. Mar. 3, 2001.
URL: http://www.discoverkate.com/Articles/20010303_iht-fadetoblack.html

Henry VII (226 – 232)
He brought peace which allowed commerce to thrive. He won the kingdom at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Married Elizabeth, Edward IV’s daughter. He increased the revenues of the Crown and made it independent of Parliament. Took various measures to keep his mighty subjects in check and to subdue riots and plots to take the throne.

Court of Star Chamber (231 343 354 363)
The Privy Council acting judicially and enforcing swift justice on great men guilty of riot, retaining private armies, and maintaining through intimidation cases before the royal courts. Kings used the Court of Star Chamber to tame their mighty subjects. Also in Stuart times the Court of Star Chamber was used to suppress religious factions such as the Puritans. It was later abolished by Parliament.

Simnel and Warbeck (228)
Lambert Simnel was a 10 year old boy whom the Yorkists passed off as the Earl of Warwick, Edward VI, who was the only direct male representative of the House of York kept in the Tower. They found support in Dublin, where he was proclaimed Edward VI. He tried to invade England, but the English were tired of war and his army was destroyed. Perkin Warbeck claimed to be Richard who was thought be murdered in the Tower. He tried to invade England three times and the last time was captured and later executed.

Merchant Adventurers of London (224)
Merchants in the city of London that had organized together to mainly export the unfinished, undyed wool cloth to Antwerp. The Merchant Adventurers of London made great fortunes and contributed to the wealth of the crown.

Thomas More (221, 236)
Sir Thomas More, author of Utopia and Lord Chancellor of England. Henry VII named him Chancellor and he defended Catherine at her divorce trial and later “resigned”. He refused to take the oath of succession and were eventually executed for what had become a treasonous act.

New Learning (233)
It is the application of reason, understood as knowledge of language, to human experience with the purpose of promoting virtuous conduct.

Erasmus (233)
Erasmus of Rotterdam came to Oxford to study Greek and went on to translate the New Testament from Greek into Latin. His translation corrected the Vulgate that tended to undermine the scriptural authority of the papacy and priesthood.

John Colet (233, 234)
Son of a wealthy London merchant who studied in Italy. He delivered a series of lectures on the Epistles of St. Paul where he read the letters in the original Greek and gave a direct human explanation of them. Founded St. Paul’s school in London.

Utopia (221, 236)
The book written by Sir Thomas More in which he attacks the rich and powerful who are evil in many ways. To overcome these evils he suggests that men abolish private property, eat in common dining halls, wear a common uniform, receive a common education. He said that only where property was held in common could pride and greed be held in check.

Henry VIII
The first English king to receive a Renaissance education. He executed several of his own ministers and two of his wives. He despriately sought a male heir to succeed him and even broke England from Rome in order to get it. He often harassed the papal church and was anticlerical.

Anne Boleyn (245 – 248)
Henry VIII’s second wife whom he divorced Catherine of Aragon for so that she could bare him a male heir to the throne. She was crowned Queen of England and Catherine’s marriage to Henry was considered null and void. Anne Boleyn never gave Henry a son, but only the future Queen Elizabeth.

Catherine of Aragon (245 – 248)
The first wife of Henry VIII who bore him no male heirs, as a result he sought to see a divorce from her. He sought the Pope to release him from his marriage. Henry VII finally divorced her in an English court cause she had been previously married or promised to his brother Arthur who actually died before they could consume the marriage.

Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (242, 243, 247)
Henry’s chief minister who conducted most of his foreign affairs. He was accused of treason by Henry VII when he failed to do the divorce of Henry VIII from Catherine of Argon. He died on his way to the trial and escaped the executioner’s axe. He was a wealthy bishop and helped promote anticleralism in the process. He was dismissed as Chancellor.

Thomas Cromwell (250, 251)
Raised through the ranks and won election in Parliament where he led the attack on clerical abuses and won the notice of the King. He with the help of Parliament led the movement toward the separation of England with the Church. Also helped organize the administration of the Crown and transformed government in the process.

Act of Supremacy (251)
The Act of Supremacy of 1534 declared the King to be the supreme head of the Church in England.

Act of Succession (251 – 252)
The Act of Succession of 1534 was an oath which was to be administered throughout the realm and which required Englishmen to acknowledge the validity of Henry’s marriage to Anne and the invalidity of his marriage to Catherine.

Dissolution of Monasteries (254)
After the Act of Succession, most monastic houses owed allegiance to the parent institutions outside of England. Henry VIII also became bankrupt and coveted the wealth of the monasteries. Emergence of new attitude and policies toward the poor occurred as the monasteries were the only institutions that helped the poor at the time.

Act of Uniformity, First and Second Prayer Book (272)
The Parliament passed the first Act of Uniformity that required all clergyman to use the new Book of Common Prayer. The second Act of Uniformity in 1522 enforced the use of the book on clergy and required the attendance of everyone in the parish at church on Sunday. If they were absent they were fined.

Ket’s Rebellion (272 – 273)
Robert Ket lead a group of rebels whose number was 16,000 on Norfolk and captured the city where they established a camp on Mousehold Heath overlooking it. Copyholders of Norfolk toke down the fences for the enclosed land of John Flowerdew who inturn had them take down the fences of his enemy Robert Ket. Ket did take down his enclosed fences and he helped the rebels and join them and became their captain. Their chief demand was their landlords not be allowed to overstock the commons with their sheep and cattle or to enclose the commons for their own use.

Lady Jane Grey (279)
Northumberland did not want to see Mary on the throne after Edward had died because he would lose his power. So he had Edward draw up a will leaving the Crown to the male heirs of Lady Jane Grey and then later to “Lady Jane and her male heirs.” But Lady Jane Grey’s attempt to take the throne failed because he failed to imprision Mary whom the people rallied behind. Mary became Mary I and Lady Jane Grey was never implictated cause she knew little of the plot to put her on the throne.

Philip II of Spain (301 – 303)
He lead a war against England which he had intended to invade via the Netherlands. He raised an army and decided to invade the Netherlands. Elizabeth seized some of his Spanish ships. Philip decided to transport his troops from the Netherlands to fight against England. He poor choice of a landing site and weather made it impossible for him to land. The English with better ships picked them off. He was also married to Mary I of England.

The book A History of England Volume 1 by Clayton Roberts was used to come up with the terms listed above.

Nathan Moinvaziri HUM214 November 15, 2005 Annemarie Spence

During the early days of cinema and cinematic experimentation the appearance of blacks in any film was minimal and almost non-existent at best. Even so, the few portrayals of blacks in these films were non-stereotypical and exhibited a truer depiction of how those of a darker colored skin had integrated into society after the Civil War. As the film industry took flight, so did this honest depiction of the black individual.

The change in the portrayal of Negros in early American film was due to several factors. The main reason why blacks were depicted differently during 1910’s than a decade before was the development of the narrative, which at the time “had not yet been fully perfected… along the lines set down by novelists and dramatists.” (Salzman pg. 960) Without the development of the narrative and the cinematic technology to produce a narrative the portrayal of much of anything would be difficult including the false portrayal of Negros. Besides the development of the narrative, the other leading cause for this change in the portrayal of Negros was the shift of the American deeper concern toward the social issues that affected them and away from the news of other parts of the world that affected others. Now, instead of Americans worrying about what the Germans and others abroad were doing they began worrying about whether or not the Negros next door were going to rape their daughters. With these two factors it is quite easy to see what took place in early film era that would have caused the depiction of Negros to change so dramatically.

The Birth of a Nation (1915) directed by D.W. Griffith depicts how blacks were portrayed by most Americans at the time or at least how they would be later depicted after having watched the film at that time. This film is often considered a masterpiece due to the fact that the techniques employed by Griffith at the time were nothing sort of revolutionary. In The Birth of a Nation, blacks are depicted as a race who takes advantage of their freedoms. The story takes the view of a confederate family that sends their boys off to fight in war only later to lose to blacks Yankees that steal, rape, and pillage their towns when the war is over. The portrayal of blacks is further derogated when the blacks rise to power after the Civil War and take over a majority of congress. In Congress they make a mockery of the powers that be and infect Congress with their lustfulness and bare footedness. The only thing that saved the day was the Ku Klux Klan which came to the rescue of the common man and killed the evil blacks. With this epic storyline, it is no wonder that “most Americans believed the account of the Reconstruction [after the Civil War] as portrayed therein, complete with its venal freedmen who did the bidding of scalawags and carpetbaggers.” (Salzman 961) The views that The Birth of a Nation promoted about black people altered the perception of Americans for years to come and only naturally embedded a hatred and distain of blacks in the common man even before the Civil Rights movement decades after the film’s release.

Heralded as one of the greatest films of all time, Gone with the Wind (1939), a Civil War epic, helped the American film audience change their perspective toward black folk even more. The movie portrays blacks in a less offensive way than The Birth of a Nation does. It makes the situation between blacks and whites in the south appear as if the blacks enjoyed being slaves to whites. One of these ‘happy slaves’, Mammy, is actually given run over the household and even appears as she has some authority within the household. To say the least, slaves were treated much worst than the leisurely picture that Gone with the Wind tries to paint. Gone with the Wind does more to try and promote the ideals of the forgotten south than it does to try and paint a clear picture of events thus measuring slavery and the harshness of it with a grain of salt. Furthermore in many scenes the “Confederacy is seen as the victim… such as that at the nursing station, where hundreds of soldiers lay helpless and damaged.” (Peterson) Gone with the Wind picked up where The Birth of a Nation left off by portraying blacks as worthless and not able to make decisions on their own, happy to be a slave to any white person who could help them make up their mind for them.

Intolerance (1916) by D.W. Griffith was the result of the public outcry against The Birth of a Nation. In the film, Griffith tries to make amends by abhorring prejudices and intolerances but he does not include the intolerance of whites towards blacks. Movies such as Intolerance do nothing to abate the growing sediment in white Americans against blacks that has been planted by propaganda such as The Birth of a Nation. The film follows four different stories where injustice occurs because of prejudice of one people toward another. In the film, Babylonians fight against the intolerance of groups trying to usurp the Babylonian authority, a mother struggles against intolerant old ladies who want to take her baby away from her, Jesus Christ is crucified because of the intolerance of self-righteous Pharisees, and the French Huguenots are slaughtered by the intolerance of the Catholics. This only goes to show that, “Intolerance is not about Black History, black contributions, black suffering or anything remotely resembling an apology.” (Epinions) What Intolerance is, is another attempt to demean blacks by not even recognizing the intolerance that they have suffered. The film does nothing to help foster happy thoughts about blacks in the minds of the audiences everywhere; instead it only helps push the issue out of the focus of the audience.

In the early 1900’s as the film industry grew so did the negative portrayals of blacks on screen. The Birth of a Nation, Gone with the Wind, and Intolerance, three movies of epic proportions did not help to alleviate the negative images of blacks on screen but they helped to further the image of the Negro as one of violence and no goodness. Each film had its own role in the development of the image of the Negro. Whether it be the outright depiction of blacks as evil or the hidden message that blacks are not above being anything but a slave one thing is for sure that is that the issue of white intolerance toward blacks can only be swept under the rug for so long. Much of the imagery that these films promote toward blacks were planted as an underlying emotional current in American audiences everywhere that would be later sparked by the Civil Rights movements in the 1950’s and 1960’s.

Cited References

“Film” Encyclopaedia of African-American Culture and History (Volume 2). Jack Salzman. Simon and Schuster Macmillian New York, NY.

Peterson, Joanne. “African-Americans and the Cinema – African-American History Through the Arts” < http://cghs.dade.k12.fl.us/african-american/twentieth_century/cinema.htm>.

Anonymous Reviewer, Epinions. “An Opinion of Intolerance the Film”.

Craft and merchant guilds
A group of craftsmen or merchants who traded or crafted in a specialized good. Peasants would flee to a town and become members of the guild through apprenticeship. Membership was limited and and craft guild membership required apprenticeship of which masters could only have a certain amount of apprentices.

Persecution of Jews
The church banned usury or the taking of any interest on a loan. This lead the Jews to establish colonies in nearly every major English town leaning money at 43 percent. They were persecuted due to their wealth and driven out and their wealth confiscated by subsequent English Kings.

Henry III
Became king at 9 years old. He had conflicts about royal authority and the advise or the barons. He embarked on several wars of France which the barons did not want and which ended in disaster. He was forced by the Great Council at Oxford to sign the Provisions of Oxford. Divisions among the barons soon resulted in the disolvement of the provision. During the last seven years of his reign he exercised his authority more wisely with the help of his son Edward I.

Reissue of Magna Carta
Reissued in 1217 which dropped the provision for a baronial council, therefore there was no obligation for the King to consult the barons as in the case of King Henry III.

Silcilian Incident 1258
One of Henry III schemes urged upon him by the Pope to win Sicily for his yonger son Edward and lead to the Provisions of Oxford.

Provisions of Oxford
Provisions that were forced upon Henry III dude to his war time failures and his unwillingness to take advise from the barons. The provision, which was intended to last 12 years only lasted 2 due to the many divisions among the barons.

Simon de Montfort
Frenchmen who came to England, heir to the Leicester earldom. He married the King’s sister and made his fortune. He failed at his administration of Gascony. He also was the leader of the reform movement which King Henry opposed. He won in battle against Prince Edward and then setup his own Council of Nine to govern the country. He was overwhelmed by a royal army and slew.

Edward I
Made many reformations in law, helping to develop statute law while cleaning up the justice system. He also conquered Wales. He failed in his fight for royal authority of Gascony. Was arbitrator of Scotland and eventually waged war against them only to lose. Used parliament to extract the needed money for his wars and during the last 10 years of his reign eventually became bankrupt.

House of Lords
Grew out of the feudal obligation of tenants in chief to perform suit to court. Membership was hereditary. Exercised various powers. It heard important judicial cases, corrected errors made by lower courts, gave the King advice, consented to taxes, and enacted statutes.

House of Commons
Stemmed from the Model Parliament. Consisted mostly of magnates, knights, and shires. Was used to instrumental in collecting taxes from the common folk.

Model Parliament 1295
Was started by Edward I to extract taxes from his people to support his various wars. It included magnates, bishops, councilors, knights, burgesses, and proctors. From it came the House of Commons.

Statute of Westminster 1258
Edward I and his Council declared that all who held land worth 15 pounds a year, whether the tenure was feudal or not, must maintain the horse and equipment of a knight.

Statute of “Quia Emptores” 1290
Stated that henceforth no man could create a new feudal tenure. If B held land A, he could grant it to C only if he dropped out of the chain and allowed C to hold directly of A. This brought the process of subinfeudation to a halt, and as land escheated to the primary lord all tenures were brought nearer the King.

Robert Bruce
Took after William Wallace in a revolt against the English for freedom of Scotland. He was a powerful Scottish nobleman who calimed the Crown of Scotland and put himself at the head of a movement for Scottish independence.

William Wallace
A Scottish gentleman who helped the Scottish people defy English power. He defeated an English army at Stirling Bridge. He was eventually captured and Edward I secured the homage of the bulk of the Scottish nobility.

Philip the Fair (IV) of France
Edward I held Gascony as a vassal of the King Philip IV of France. A dispute arose between English and Gascony ships. Philip summoned King Edward I to his court. Edward I refused and instead planned an expedition to recover Gascony which Philip took from him. They warred and the result being that Edward recognize Philip as his overlord for Gascony.

Edward II
He took control with the crown in debt. Barons mistrusted Edward who was hostile toward their endeavors. He played favorites which were costly. He was betrayed by his wife Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer. They summoned parliament who had him abdicate in favor of his son. He was later murdered by Mortimer.

Piers Gaveston
One of the favorites of King Edward II. He was a young Gascon knight. The barons resented him because of his monopoly of the King’s counsel. The barons forced on Edward an ordnance that banished Gaveston. Edward II signed it only to bring Gaveston back from exile. The more extreme barons seized Gaveston, held a mock trial and executed him in 1312.

Hugh Despenser the Younger
One of the favorites of King Edward II. The barons also ordered his banishment but he was brought back as well although this time with an army which marched against the barons. He amassed forhimself an empire in South Wales. When Roger Mortimer and the Queen invaded England they seized and hanged Despenser.

Battle of Bannockburn
Edward II in order to bring relief to the English forces in Stiriling Castle marched north against the Scots. He failed to protect his archers and subsequently lost. This battle pretty much guaranteed the independence of Scotland. The Scots continued their raids into England.

Roger Mortimer and Queen Isabella
Both led a rebellion against Edward II. Queen Isabella was Edward’s wife who allied with Mortimer, a marcher lord who had escaped to Paris from the Tower. They were joined by the King’s own brothers and Englishmen. They had Edward II abdicate to his son Edward III. Mortimer killed Edward II nine months later. And Edward III executed Mortimer when he became of age.

Edward III
Waged war against Scotland then turned to France when he found out that France was backing Scotland openly. Due to his warring he had to summon Parliament often, resulting in its growth of power and stature. Edward III used Parliament to extract the taxes from the people. House of Common and House of Lords were first mentioned.

Flanders
Edward III used their support in the fight against the French. He threatened to forbid the export of English wool to Flanders unless they helped. Flemish support proved of little help and in the end it cost more than it was worth due to their revolts and stuff.

Gascony
Edward I had problems with Gascony being a vassal to King Philip of France. Edward III received full sovereignty over Gascony which was later conceded due to the lack of English resource that the inability to hold the ground.

Hundred Year’s War
Fundamental cause being Philip VI determination to subordinate Edward’s authority in Aquitaine to his own royal authority and Edward’s resolve not to. Edward III launch several campaigns against the French before he died. Although he bankrupted the crown and did not have the resources to keep the land he fought so hard for.

Crecy
A city in northern France where Edward III slaughtered a much larger French army than his own. He did so with the use of the longbow which charged the mounted French knights. Edward III had been conducting a raid for plunder and pillage.

Poitiers
Edward the Black Prince routed the French army and captured the King of France probably with the use of his longbowmen. English won a resounding victory in which France was forced to sue for peace. Edward renounced his claim to the French throne in exchange for full sovereignty over a much enlarged Aquitaine.

Longbow
Made of yew wood and stood about 5 feet high. It shot an arrow a yard long. It could shoot six arrows a minute with a force sufficient at 200 yards to pierce an inch of wood or the armor of a knight. It helped Edward III win victories and helped end 500 years of supremacy for the mounted knight.

Edward, the Black Prince
Son of Edward III who won a decisive victory at Poitiers. He also helped to remove John of Gaunt and others who feathered their nests at the Crown’s expense from Parliament.

Black Death
Also known as the bubonic plague. It killed thousands and provided work opportunities to others. It helped contribute to the decline of the manorial economy. People began to embrace death and “learned to die”. It produced employment availabilities and also helped increased the cost of labor.

Statute of Labourers
Was passed in 1351 and established a maximum wage. Although as the bubonic plague spread throughout England this statute became difficult to enforce. Wages rose and the availability of workers was low. This statute was one of the reasons for the peasant’s rebellion in 1381.

Peasant Rebellion 1381
The rebellion of the peasants in several towns which demanded of their King the complete abolition of serfdom and commutation of servile dues to a rent of four pence an acre. They wanted “all to be free and of one condition.” The peasants besieged the King and had him give concessions. Once the lead of the rebellion was killed the King did not follow through with them. They failed cause they had no political power.

Richard II
Came to the throne at the age of 10 the only son of Edward the Black Prince. He had strife with the barons who did not want to give up the power that they had gained under Edward III and Richard’s miniority. Richard became mad and power hungry. He denied Henry Bolingbroke his inheritance and exiled him. Henry came back and overthrew Richard II. He let him live for sometime until he determined it was too dangerous for him to live. And Richard was said to have starved himself.

Wat Tyler
The leader of the Peasant’s Revolt. He was thrown off his horse and slew by the Major of London when he besieged the King and his barons along with other peasants and demanded the abolition of serfdom among other things such as the division of Church goods among parishioners and that their be no villain in England.
John Ball – Helped inspire the Peasant’s revolt. He was a wandering hedge-priest who envisioned better conditions for the peasantry. He asked such things as “When Admin delved and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman?”

Merciless Parliament
Started when the Duke of Gloucester and other leading men raised an army and overawed the King. They accused the King’s leading advisors and demanded Parliament to pass judgement on them. The Parliament did away with the men and so Richard II’s circle of friends was shattered.

Geoffrey Chaucer
Son of a London wine merchant who pursued various careers. He was an English poety who helped pave the way for Shakespear and Dickens. He expressed anticlericalism. His greatest masterpiece was The Canterbury Tales.

John Wycliffe
Oxford scholar who believed that religious belief had to be taken on faith. He relied mainly on the scriptures and less on traditions. He helped promote anticlericalism cause he thought that priests did not have the power to forgive sins. His ideas were considered dangerous and others were determined to get rid of all the Lollards. He helped pave the way for Martin Luther’s reformation.

The book A History of England Volume 1 by Clayton Roberts was used to come up with the terms listed above.

Nathan Moinvaziri October 14, 2005 HUM214 Annmarie Spence

During the later half of the 20th century, when the film industry grew in leaps and bounds, so did the individuals both directors and actors who helped make it into what it was and defined it for a whole new generation of movie goers. In the film industry there are those that have distinguished themselves from the rest even though they have not gotten the recognition they deserve. One of those individuals is Sidney Poitier who has played an important role in the development of black films. In an era when black actors/entertainers were not as popular and as much accepted as they are now, Sidney helped present the black community to black and white audiences without offending or provoking them.

It might sound easy, but for Sidney, appealing to a mixed black and white audience was difficult and sometimes came with a price. When Sidney first started his career he started it as an actor and used his position and affluence as an actor to step into the director’s chair. During Sidney’s years in the film industry, blacks gained more social acceptance and part of it is due to the types of films that Sidney himself starred in and directed.

One of Sidney Poitier’s films A Piece of the Action (1997) shows Sidney’s development in films and his part in giving a new light to the black community. The story is about two characters named Manny and Dave who turn their lives around after working in the criminal sector. They are coerced into working at a juvenile facility by a detective who threatens to turn them in if they don’t. It turns to their better as they trade their life of crime for a life of helping underprivileged black teenagers. In all, the film shows blacks in a more personal light. The way the film does this is by mixing comedy into the rather dramatic scenes that are all throughout the film. As some might say such “humor emanates from (these) dramatic situations.” (Donalson 37) Comedy often helps audiences interact and feel more comfortable with the on-film personalities that they are presented with. Films such as A Piece of the Action are the types of films that have helped blacks become more socially accepted among a white society and audience due to their humor and emotional characters. Although A Piece of the Action was the start of Sidney’s comedy-film career it was not received as well as some of his other films mainly due to the fact that it dealt with too many social issues even if it did present it in a comedic light. (Donalson 37)

The film Stir Crazy (1980) was probably the most received by audiences of all Sidney’s early films. It includes two leading actors one of which was Gene Wilder who is white and the other Richard Pryor who is black. This “interracial buddy film formula which was popular in Hollywood at the time”, was the kind of film that helped blacks and whites become more socially accepting of each other. (Donalson 39) Sidney directed the film and thus took a different role in the film making process apart from A Piece of the Action where Sidney role-played as the character named Manny. Sidney’s best films were those where comedy was key. Most of his very first films were too full of social issues that either “offended or provoked the audiences” with uneasiness. (Donalson 40) Stir Crazy, with two comedians playing lead roles the film was one of the top-three grossing films of the years. The story is about two friends who honestly go to California to start a new life and are both mistaken for criminals. Their often fits of insanity help promote a more humorous atmosphere that is much needed in black films. Both friends, black and white, work together to get out of prison and get their names cleared. This film does not bring up very many ethical or social issues but is instead saturated with humor and is why it is, “the kind of comedy that studios wanted to market”. (Donalson 40) Stir Crazy is one of the movies that helped socially bring blacks and whites closer together.

The last film on the list, Ghost Dad (1990) was not as successful as Stir Crazy. It starred Bill Cosby as Elliot Hopper, another comedian who also played Dave in A Piece of the Action. The story is about a single black father of three children who is a hard working business man that dies, but later lives when he enters back into his body. Although this film tries to be funny and enlightened like the rest of Sidney Poitier’s directed films, it deals with another serious issue that most people are uncomfortable thinking about – death. This and an all-black cast (except for a white cab driver who is a Satanist) makes it hard for the film to successfully “define for itself an audience” and is why Ghost Dad was not as big as a success as Stir Crazy. (Donalson 43) The thing that Ghost Dad did have for itself at the time and even now is that it is a family movie. I actually remember this movie when I was a child. On another note, the film shows the acceptance of blacks in managerial positions in the work place. Ghost Dad is another in a series of comedic films by Sidney Poitier that warms audiences up to blacks.

As seen, Sidney Poitier is a distinguished actor and director who has excelled in producing comedy films for a generation of film going audiences. Although he is not a very funny actor himself, he knows just how to mix up a film to make it likable by audiences of every color. Sidney’s films have helped break cultural divides that have existed in society since the segregation of blacks and whites. In fact, “he participated in shaping African America opportunities both behind and in front of the camera.” (Donalson 44) They also have changed the way people look at black communities altogether. Poitier’s films A Piece of Action, Stir Crazy, and Ghost Dad are good examples of comedy used to gain a greater audience for black films. Sidney Poitier is a good actor but an even better director. He makes films that everybody can enjoy both black and white, family or not. With all the films that Sidney has worked on it can be clearly seen that work has been instrumental to the development of socials views as a whole.

References

Donalson, Melvin. Black Directors in Hollywood. University of Texas P, 2003.